Part 3 – The Shibud and Yetziah (Oppression and Exodus):

Previously we looked at the Pharoahs during the period of the patriarchs. We now look at what the historians of old had to say about the Pharaohs of the period of slavery and the Exodus under Moshe.

Following the expulsion of the Hyksos the New Kingdom was formed beginning with the 18th Dynasty. Eusebius’ table of 18th Dynasty Pharaohs was annotated with the comment that it was around this time that Moshe led the Israelites out of Egypt. The 18th Dynasty covered a considerable length of time, but other writers provided more detailed extracts of Manetho with more precise identification of events. Josephus’ extract names all rulers of the period. As before lists derived from Manetho have become garbled and mis-ordered and we present the names and order from the archaeological record.

Ahmose I c. 1550 – 1525 BCE: The brother and successor of Kamose mentioned previously. He defeated the Hyksos beginning a new period in Egyptian history. Manetho knew him as Amos / Amosis and also calls him Tethmosis from his “Nebty name” Tutmesut, telling us that he drove out the Hyksos. Manetho’s account however tells of Hyksos remaining at Avaris (near Raamses) and agreeing to leave at the time of Thutmose III, noting that they built Jerusalem and that their sacred writings claim them to have been captives. This is of course a reference to the Jews! The Sefer Ha-Yashar speaks of all the mighty men and generation that knew Yosef dying and being replaced by a new generation in the days of the Pharaoh after “Magron” (i.e. “fugitive” who corresponded to the last Hyksos ruler Khamudi defeated and expelled by Ahmose). This was the Pharaoh who did not know Yosef. Theophilus of Antioch records that Tethmosis had the cities of Pithom and Raamses built (as well as On), according with Sefer Sh’mot that tells us that these were cities that the enslaved Jews were set to work on.

Amenhotep I c. 1541 – 1520 BCE: The son of Ahmose I. In extracts of Manetho his name in Greek is Amenophthis / Ammenophis / Amenophis. The Alexandrian historian Artapanus knew him as Palmanothes (his name with the Egyptian definite article pa- added) and tells us that he was cruel to the Jews at the time of his building projects. The Syriac writers knew him as Amonpathis and tell us that it was he who ordered male Jewish infants to be drowned. The Sefer Zichronot similarly names Amenophis as the Pharaoh who ordered the drownings but conflates him with the original Pharaoh who had not known Yosef. The Sefer Ha-Yashar speaks of the Pharaoh “Meror” (embitterer).

Aakheperkare Djehutimes (Thutmose) I c. 1520 – 1492 BCE: The son of a common woman presumably by Amenhotep whom he ruled with and succeeded. Ethiopia rebelled against Egypt in his rule and he launched a military campaign against it which continued into the reign of his son. Manetho gives his name as Misaphris a fragment of his birth name and throne name [Djehuti]mes Aakheper[kare] corrupted to Miphres / Mephres whence also Mapros in Syriac. Josephus provides detailed Egyptian accounts of the war with Ethiopia although he refers to him merely as the king. He tells us that this was the Pharaoh whose daughter rescued and adopted Moshe who became a powerful general in his army during the war. Arab tradition remembers him by the garbled name Muzahim (which resembles Mapros in Arabic script), a wealthy commoner whose daughter was the Pharaoh’s wife who rescued and adopted Moshe.

Aakheperenre Djehutimes (Thutmose) II c. 1492 – 1479 BCE: The son of Thutmose I who continued the war against Ethiopia. He was married to his half-sister Hatshepsut. Manetho calls him Chebron / Chebros from his throne name Aakheperenre which became Kabus in Arabic, similarly Artapanus knew him as Chenepheres whence Kanpara in Syriac. Artapanus tells of Moshe’s exploits in the war with Ethiopia under him and how he tried to have Moshe killed and that he suffered from elephantiasis (which causes massive swelling) as G-d’s punishment for forcing the Jews to wear distinctive linen clothing instead of wool. In the Sefer Ha-Yashar this is remembered as the Pharaoh of the Oppression named “Melol” i.e. “blob / kneidel”, but conflated with all the previous Pharaohs including “Meror” (and thus having the length of his rule confused with the long reign of the much earlier Pepi II). The Arabic accounts of him are also very confused for although they place him at the time of Moshe, he was thought to be the son of Thutmose II (Mosab) instead of Thutmose I (Muzahim) while additionally having been alive at the time of Yosef.

Moshe is said to have married the daughter (called Tharbis by Josephus, Raosa in the Syriac accounts) of a king of Ethiopia (called Soros in the Syriac accounts) and/or widow (called Adoniah in the Sefer Ha-Yashar) of a king of Ethiopia (called Kikianus in the Sefer Ha-Yashar and Koknus in the midrash Yalkut Shimoni).

Maatkare Hatshepsut c. 1479 – 1458 BCE: The daughter of Thutmose I and half-sister and wife of Thutmose II. She was the main power during her husband’s reign and she continued to reign after him. Artapanus knew her as Merrhis from her throne name Maatkare and similarly the Syriac writers knew her as Makri. (Thutmose I being the son of a commoner was often omitted from official lists and Artapanus assumes that Palmanothes was her father rather than grandfather and did not know that her husband was her brother.) The Syriac tradition also notes that Makri was called Shipor (rendered Sephurah in Ethiopic) which is possibly a conflation of “Hatshepsut” with the name of the Hebrew midwife Shiphrah and misunderstood as meaning shofar (signal horn). Josephus knew her as Thermuthis a Greek form of her “Nebty name” Wadjetrenput whence the alternative Syriac names for her Tremothisa / Tharmesis / Damaris. Similarly in the Sefer Ha-Yovelim of the Ethiopian Jews she is called Tharmuth. Bar-Hebraeus additionally calls her Ramoso seemingly Egyptian for “born of Ra”, but perhaps merely a further shortening of the previously mentioned forms, also corrupted to Raosa. (The names of the Ethiopian princess in Josephus and Syriac sources might in fact be corrupted forms of her names due to confusion.) All these sources state that she is the Pharaoh’s daughter who rescued and raised Moshe! Indeed it is known that she could not bear children of her own. Manetho knew her as the female ruler Amensis / Amersis / Amesses from her title Amun-Khnemet (“united with the god Amun”). Arab tradition remembers her as Asiya (seemingly a further corruption of the aforementioned names in Arabic script) the daughter of Muzahim who adopted Moshe.

Besides actual Pharaohs, we also mention other relevant people from the archaeological record.

Princess Nefrubity: A sister of Hatshepsut who mysteriously disappears from official records. It has been suggested that she is the Pharaoh’s daughter Bitya who married Mered of the house of Yehuda in Divrei Ha-Yamim. In Midrash, Bitya is conflated with the daughter of Pharoah who saved Moshe who is thus called Batya – daughter of G-d.

Overseer Nekhesy: He was in charge of building projects in Thebes at the time of Thutmose II. Artapanus knew him as Nacharos and tells that Thutmose II appointed him to supervise the building of a new temple in Thebes after Moshe returned from the war in Ethiopia.

High Priest (Hem-netjer-tepy) of Amun, Hapuseneb: The High Priest at the time of Thutmose II. Artapanus knew him as Chanethothes (a garbled Greek adaptation of his title) and tells us that this is the man that Thutmose II sent to kill Moshe. Moshe had fled on the advice of his brother (i.e. Aharon) and Chanethothes tried to ambush him but Moshe killed him by sword. He appears as Khanothis in a shorter Syriac account. A Syriac account also mentions that the man that Moshe killed for beating a Jewish slave was Pethkom the chief baker.

Queen Isit (Isis): She was a secondary wife of Thutmose II and mother of Thutmose III bearing the title King’s Mother and was often depicted with her son. The Roman historian Tacitus knew her as Queen Isis (not to be confused with the goddess) and provides an account that the Jewish Exodus from Egypt was during her time.

Menkheperre Djehutimes (Thutmose) III c. 1458 – 1425 BCE: The son of Thutmose II and Queen Isit. Initially ruled in the shadow of his aunt Hatshepsut and defaced her monuments after her death. Arab tradition provides a fable that she was tortured to death by Pharaoh for refusing to reject Moshe and his faith. Manetho knew him as Misphragmuthosis a garbled Greek spelling of his throne name and birth name corrupted also as Mispharmuthosis / Mephramuthosis / Halisphragmuthosis. The Arab historians know him by the much shorter version Mosab. Africanus’ extract of Manetho also calls him Amosis from his title kha-em-Waset (“arising in Thebes”), the name by which he was also known to Ptolemy of Polemon, Apion, Posidonius, Herodotus and Syncellus, the last of whom points out that he should not be confused with the first Amosis (i.e. Amos = Ahmose) but is instead the same as Misphragmuthosis (Menkheperre Djehutimes). The 7th century Coptic bishop and historian John of Nikiu similarly knew him as Amosius as well as Petissonios from his title Sekhem-Pehti (“mighty in strengh”). Similarly the Syriac writers knew him as Psonos / Phosinos. Clement of Alexandria calls him Nechephreus from his throne name Menkheperre which is corrupted to Bocchoris in the work of Lysimachus (due to confusion with the name of a much later Pharaoh) the name by which he was also known to Tacitus. All the above named historians claim that he was the Pharaoh at the time of the Exodus! Manetho also involves his son Amenhotep II (who ruled with him) and grandson Thutmose IV who was at first a general in his army. Ptolemy of Mendes also knew of him under the name Amosis and recorded that he destroyed Avaris (where the Hebrews had lived). This accords with the writings of the 4th century pilgrim Egeria who recorded that this region was destroyed by the Pharaoh of the Exodus when the Jews left. The Sefer Ha-Yasher speaks of Pharaoh “Adikam” (i.e. “I am crushing them”) succeeding “Melol” and records a legend that the Egyptians called him Achuz meaning short – Thutmose III’s mummy reveals that he was indeed short.

Accounts of Pharaoh’s magicians also survive in tradition allowing them to be identified with figures from the archaeological record:

Scribe Thaneni: He was an official of Thutmose III’s court charged with recording the Pharaoh’s annals. John of Nikiu knew of him as Thutmose III’s diviner Taninus who he says faced the Hebrews after the Pharaoh had failed to be convinced by Moshe’s staff. It is said that he acknowledged the true G-d when asked by the Hebrews and the Pharaoh had this inscribed on a tablet placed in the temple. A vague memory of him is seen in other accounts as Pharaoh’s magician Jannes, further garbled in some accounts as Jamnes, Johannes or Yochana / Yochani (confused with the name Yochanan).

Priest Amenhotep the son of Hapu: He was an official of Thutmose III’s son Amenhotep II. Manetho knew him as the seer Amenophis the son of Paapis [Hapu with definite article pa- prefixed] and tells how his advise led to the expelling of the Jews. Chaeremon of Alexandria tells a similar story calling him instead Phritibantes / Phritiphantes (conflating his name imn-Htp with the title p’-Hry-idb = “the chief of inundatable lands” seemingly in an erroneous attempt to amend the confusing fact that it is the same as the Pharaoh’s name). As with the accounts of Lysimachus and Tacitus, this is portrayed in an anti-Semitic manner as ridding Egypt of diseased people. The Roman historian Pliny the Elder knew him by the shortened form Lotape / Jotape [-hotep] listing him after Moshe and Jannes as a magician known from Jewish sources. A vague memory of him is seen in the Koran as Pharaoh’s adviser Haman where his name has been conflated with that of the villain of Purim. In other accounts his name appears garbled as “Jambres” seemingly conflated with Ambrose, and still later as “Mambres”, further confused with Mamre in Bereshit the example of a wise man. (In Midrashic fable such as found in the Sefer Ha-Yashar, “Jannes and Jambres” are portrayed as the sons of Balaam. “Lotape” also became increasingly garbled in copies of Pliny leading to misinterpretation as feminine “Lotapea” or “Jochabela” [conflated with the name of Moshe’s mother] and the combination with Jannes resulting in a stock name for a witch in Jewish folklore – Yochani bat Retivi [-hotep / [Ph]ritib[antes]. “Lotape” is also found garbled as “Palti” [conflated with the Hebrew name Paltiel for Moshe] and subsequently further corrupted as “Posdi” said to be an Egyptian sorceress.)

Aakheperrure Amenhotep II c. 1425 – 1400 BCE: The son of Thutmose III who initially ruled together with him. Manetho and Chaeremon knew him as Amenophis. The Arab historians speak of the boy (al-Walid, meaning they did not have record of his name) the son of Mosab although they conflate all the previous Pharaohs of the Oppression with him. Manetho’s accounts of the Exodus involve both Pharaoah’s suggesting that it occurred during the time of joint rule. Chaeremon’s account only mentions him as the Pharaoh. He continued to rule after his father when the 18th Dynasty was at its height of power.

Menkheperure Djehutimes (Thutmose) IV c. 1400 – 1390 BCE: The son of Amenhotep II. Manetho knew him as Tuthmosis / Thmosis and the Syriac writers as Tomothos / Thothmes. Due to corruption of the order of the Pharaohs, Manetho assumed that he was Thutmose III’s son although he was actually his grandson. He tells how Amenhotep II and another son had to flee to Ethiopia because of Moshe and tells how Thutmose IV was a general who went against the Hyksos remaining in Avaris (i.e. the Jews) but could not expel them and concluded a treaty whereby they would leave. Chaeremon knew him as Messene (from his throne name Menkheperure) son of Amenophis and gives a similar account where Amenhotep II had gone into hiding in Ethiopia leaving his pregnant wife behind and that the son (i.e. Thutmose IV) eventually grew up and expelled the Jews. Thutmose IV went on to be the next Pharaoh after Amenhotep II died but he was not originally his designated successor – the first born son of Amenhotep seems to have died!

As for Moshe himself, Manetho who did not know the story of his origin says that he was originally an Egyptian priest called Osarsiph who allied himself to the Jews, but this seems to be a confusion with “Yosef” where additionally the first syllable has been understood to mean G-d and translated into Egyptian as Osar ( = Osiris). The Syriac writers provide Midrashic names that the Egyptians supposedly called him: Pantil (corruption of Paltiel [deliverance of God]) and Amlakya (presumably “Amalekite” meaning Asiatic / Hyksos as in the Arabic wide usage of the term as a translation of Egyptian Amu) and also the Shakwitha (corruption of Shekahtha = hushed one [child of unknown father]) of Pharaoh’s daughter. However Artapanus says they called him Hermes. We have seen previously that this is Greek for Thoth and indicates the name Djehuti in the original Egyptian. This seems to have been a common name – we previously saw a Pharaoh with this name and we know that the treasurer of Hatshepsut buried in Thebes had this name as well as a general of Thutmose III buried in Saqqarah. (The latter being remembered in tales as the conquerer of the city of Jaffa then under Canaanite rule.) If Artapanus is right this same name was what the Egyptians called Moshe. Chaeremon says he was called Tisithen and Aharon (confused by Chaeremon with Yosef) called Peteseph (Yosef with first syllable translated as Ptah). Tisethen is possibly a Greek rendering of Djehuti alternate to Thoth. A papyrus letter addressed to a Djehuti was found discarded at the memorial temple of Hatshepsut asking Djehuti to send a letter of explanation to the Greatest of Seers for a serious transgression he had committed relating to a man named Ptah-Sokar. Although typically assumed to be a letter to Hatshepsut’s treasurer of that name, it has been suggested that this is possibly a letter to Moshe and that Ptah-Sokar is the Pethkom of the Syriac texts whom Moshe killed leading to his fleeing Egypt!